Sociologists place their observations into a conceptual framework called a theory.
Theory: a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work. It is an explanation of how two or more “facts” are related to one another.
Sociologists use three major theories: symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory.
Each theory is like a lens through which we can view social life.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism: a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another.
Symbolic interactionists study face-to-face interaction, examining how people make sense out of life and their place in it.
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) and George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed this perspective in sociology.
An example of symbols in our social life are the relationships we have with other people. Without symbols, we would have no aunts or uncles, employers or teachers — or even brothers and sisters. We would not know to whom we owe respect and obligations, or from whom we can expect privileges — two elements that lie at the essence of human relationships.
Another great example of symbols is marriage. A hundred years ago, marriage was seen as a contract between a man and a woman to support each other in their obligations. Now, we see marriage as a completely different symbol. Nowadays, people expect affection, understanding and compatibility from marriage. In the same way, divorce was seen as a failure in the past whereas now, people see it as a new beginning.
Functional Analysis/Structural Functionalism
Functional Analysis: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism.
Structural functionalism is supported by many sociologists. August Comte and Herbert Spencer viewed society as an organism with different parts that function together. If the organism or society has to survive, the different parts must work together in harmony.
Emile Durkheim also viewed society as different parts each with their own function. He said that when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state. If they do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathological state.
To functionalists, structure and functions are both important:
Structure: how the parts of a society fit together.
Function: what each part does, how it contributes to society.
Robert Merton, an advocate of functionalism, agreed with the theory about society but dismissed the comparison to an organism. Some of his theories are explained below:
Merton stated that a function has a positive impact on society and a dysfunction has a negative impact on society. A function enhances the equilibrium of the society whereas a dysfunction undermines the equilibrium of the society.
Functions can either be manifest or latent. If an action is intended, it is a manifest function. If an action is unintentional, it is a latent function.
A good example of Merton’s theories is if the birth rate of a country becomes extremely low. A manifest function would be if the legislature starts giving out bonuses for having babies. A latent function would be that since people will start having babies, the diaper business will boom. On the other hand, a latent dysfunction would be increase in taxes to support the bonuses being handed out. Raising the taxes wasn’t intentional but were required due to increased costs of handing out bonuses.
Let’s apply functional analysis to our marriage and divorce example. Functionalists state that industrialization and urbanization have resulted in higher divorce rates. Back in the day, people had ties that bind them. A husband would do work outside the house whereas a wife focused on household chores and tending to the children. They both had different functions which supported the structure of the marriage. Making a living was cooperative. Nowadays, both a man and a woman earn independently and do not rely on each other for finances in an impersonal, globalized world. The fewer functions the family share, the more the chance of divorce.
Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory: a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources. The surface might show cooperation, but scratch that surface and you will find a struggle for power.
Karl Marx was the founder of the conflict theory. He witnessed the Industrial Revolution which had result in exploitation of the workers by a few capitalists. He concluded that the key to human history is class conflict: a class of elite people that control the means of production versus the masses who are exploited for their labor. Since the elites control the legal and political system, they can put down any rebellion by the exploited masses.
Since then, sociologists have used the conflict theory to examine opposing forces in the society e.g. when parents enforce a timetable on the teenagers but they want to rebel for more independence. Throughout society, there is a constant struggle to determine who has authority or influence and how far that dominance goes.
Sociologist Lewis Coser (1913–2003) pointed out that conflict is most likely to develop among people who are in close relationships. The power balance is established in these relationships, any change in power of the parties will result in resentment leading to conflict.
Going back to our marriage and divorce example, feminists use conflict theory to explain divorces are increasing in the modern world. In the past, the woman was dependent on the man for basic survival and as a result, she was exploited and dominated. Nowadays, women are becoming increasingly independent due to industrialization. This independence means that they are more likely to dissolve a marriage that becomes intolerable or even just satisfactory. The dominance of men over women was once considered natural and right, now this assumption has lost steam. From the perspective of conflict theory, divorce isn’t a bad thing - it just means that women are becoming more independent and standing up for themselves.
Levels of Analysis: Macro and Micro
A major difference between these three theoretical perspectives is their level of analysis.
Functionalists and conflict theorists focus on the macro level; that is, they examine large-scale patterns of society.
Symbolic interactionists usually focus on the micro level, on social interaction — what people do when they are in one another’s presence.
If we were to study homeless, functionalists and conflict would focus on why homelessness exists in society. The symbolic interactionists would focus on what the homeless do and the choices they make in their day-to-day lives.
Theory and Research
Theory and research are both essential for sociology.
Every theory must be tested, which requires research.
Research often comes up with surprising findings, those results must be explained: For that, we need theory.
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